A Comparative Study of Biomarker Levels for Iraqi Individuals’ Smokers and Non-Smokers Depending on the Duration of Smoking
-
(1) * Shaymaa Saadi Abbood
Iraqi Atomic Energy Commission, Central Laboratories Directorate, Iraq
Iraq
(2) Aseel Khalil Ibraheem Iraqi Atomic Energy Commission, Central Laboratories Directorate
Iraq
(3) Heyam A Hashim Iraqi Atomic Energy Commission, Central Laboratories Directorate
Iraq
(4) Muntadher Hussein Challoob University of Mustansiriyah, College of Science, Chemistry Department
Iraq
(*) Corresponding Author
Abstract
Smoking is a widespread public health challenge globally, impacting societal health and economy while elevating the risk of cardiovascular and peripheral vascular diseases. This study aims to examine hematological parameters (HB, PCV%, WBC, RBC, PLT, ESR), liver and kidney function, lipid profile, and electrolytes (K+, Na+, Ca++) in male smokers aged 20-55 from Baghdad City, subdivided by smoking duration (≥5 years and <5 years), compared to non-smoking controls. A total of sixty participants were recruited across three areas (Diyala Bridge, Mada'in, Talbieh), with each group comprising thirty individuals. Venipuncture was performed for blood sample collection. Results revealed statistically significant elevations in total WBC and RBC counts, hematocrit, hemoglobin, total cholesterol, and liver enzymes (GOT, GPT, ALP) among smokers compared to non-smokers (p<0.05 or p<0.001). Serum uric acid, urea, and creatinine levels were significantly higher in smokers (p<0.001), while triglyceride levels showed no significant difference (p>0.05) between groups. Smokers with longer duration (>5 years) exhibited higher HB, triglyceride, and Na+ levels compared to shorter-term smokers. Sensitivity analysis indicated Na+ as a potentially effective biomarker for smoking-related health impacts, complementing PCV% and urea sensitivity. The study underscores the association between smoking and oxidative stress, notably reflected in elevated GOT and GPT levels, suggesting implications for antioxidant therapies in managing smoking-induced oxidative damage. These findings contribute novel insights into biomarker responses influenced by smoking duration and advocate for targeted public health strategies and further research into antioxidant interventions to mitigate smoking-associated health risks effectively.
References
Abdul-Razaq, S. N., & Ahmed, B. M. (2013). Effect of cigarette smoking on liver function test and some other related parameters. Zanco Journal of Medical Sciences (Zanco J Med Sci), 17(3), 556–562. doi.org/10.15218/zjms.2013.0048 DOI: https://doi.org/10.15218/zjms.2013.0048
Açık, D. Y., Suyani, E., Aygün, B., & Bankir, M. (2020). The Effect of Smoking on Hematological Parameters. Journal of Applied Psychology, 32(2), 150-158. doi.org/10.1037/h0059908
Allain, C. C., Poon, L. S., Chan, C. S., Richmond, W. F. P. C., & Fu, P. C. (1974). Enzymatic determination of total serum cholesterol. Clinical chemistry, 20(4), 470-475. doi.org/10.1093/clinchem/20.4.470 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/clinchem/20.4.470
Al-Mousawi, H. T. M., Ali, A. H., & Hashim, N. M. (2021). Influence of Cigarette Smoking on Liver Function and Lipids Levels Tests: A comparative Study Directed among Smokers and Non-smokers in Babylon Governorate. Journal of Biotechnology Research Center, 15(2), 81-91. doi.org/10.24126/jobrc.2021.15.2.614 DOI: https://doi.org/10.24126/jobrc.2021.15.2.614
Alsalhen, K. S., & Abdalsalam, R. D. (2014). Effect of cigarette smoking on liver functions: a comparative study conducted among smokers and non-smokers male in El-beida City, Libya. International Current Pharmaceutical Journal, 3(7), 291-295. doi.org/10.3329/icpj.v3i7.19077 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3329/icpj.v3i7.19077
Asif, M., Karim, S., Umar, Z., Malik, A., Ismail, T., Chaudhary, A., ... & Rasool, M. (2013). Effect of cigarette smoking based on hematological parameters: comparison between male smokers and non-smokers. Turkish Journal of Biochemistry/Turk Biyokimya Dergisi, 38(1). doi: 10.5505/tjb.2013.68077 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5505/tjb.2013.68077
Batic-Mujanovic, O., Beganlic, A., Salihefendic, N., Pranjic, N., & Kusljugic, Z. (2008). Influence of smoking on serum lipid and lipoprotein levels among family medicine patients. Med Arh, 62(5-6), 264-267. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/26240778
Bhatt, J. V. (2003). MPACT of tobacco smoking on coronary risk factor profile. Indian Journal of Applied Basic Medical Sciences, 5(1). Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/36447364
Casasola, G. G.; Alvarz-Sala, Marques, J. A.; SanchezAlarcos, J. M.; Tashkin, D. P.& Espinos, D. (2002) Cigarette smoking behavior and respiratory alternations during sleep in a healthy population. Sleep Breath., 6, 19-24. doi: 10.1007/s11325-002-0019-y DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11325-002-0019-y
Cooper, R. G. (2006). Effect of tobacco smoking on renal function. Indian Journal of Medical Research, 124(3), 261-268. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/6710964
Devaranavadagi, B. B., Aski, B. S., Kashinath, R. T., & Hundekari, I. A. (2012). Effect of cigarette smoking on blood lipids–A study in Belgaum, northern Karnataka, India. Retrieved from https://globaljournals.org/GJMR_Volume12/9
Egoro, E. T., Ilegbedion, G. I., Awharentomah, D. K., & Richard, S. O. (2018). CIGARETTE SMOKING IS DANGEROUS TO HEALTH: A BIOCHEMICAL STUDY IN SOME CHRONIC MALE CIGARETTE SMOKERS IN OVOM NIGERIA. pathogenesis, 6, 8. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/345340966
El Sayed, S. M., Mahmoud, H. S., & Nabo, M. M. H. (2013). Methods of wet cupping therapy (Al-Hijamah): in light of modern medicine and prophetic medicine. Altern Integ Med, 2(3), 1-16. doi: 10.4172/2327-5162.1000111 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4172/2327-5162.1000111
Eliasson, B., Mero, N., Taskinen, M. R., & Smith, U. (1997). The insulin resistance syndrome and postprandial lipid intolerance in smokers. Atherosclerosis, 129(1), 79-88. doi: 10.1016/s0021-9150(96)06028-5 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0021-9150(96)06028-5
Fossati, P., Prencipe, L., & Berti, G. (1980). Use of 3, 5-dichloro-2-hydroxybenzenesulfonic acid/4-aminophenazone chromogenic system in direct enzymic assay of uric acid in serum and urine. Clinical chemistry, 26(2), 227-231. doi: 10.1093/CLINCHEM/26.2.227 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/clinchem/26.2.0227
Franceschini, N., Deng, Y., Flessner, M. F., Eckfeldt, J. H., Kramer, H. J., Lash, J. P., ... & Cai, J. (2016). Smoking patterns and chronic kidney disease in US Hispanics: Hispanic community health study/study of Latinos. Nephrology Dialysis Transplantation, 31(10), 1670-1676. doi.org/10.1093/ndt/gfw210 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/ndt/gfw210
Frankl, H. D., & Merritt, J. H. (1959). Enzyme activity in the serum and common duct bile of dogs. Am J Gastroenterol, 31(2), 166-170. DOI: https://doi.org/10.21236/ADA036040
Hamza, D. H., & Naji, W. A. (2020). Study of smoking effect on some liver functions, blood pressure and some haematological parameters in smokers in Al-Muthanna province. Indian Journal of Forensic Medicine & Toxicology, 14(4), 1995. doi.org/10.37506/ijfmt.v14i4.11845
Hang, X., Li, J., Sejas, D. P. and Pang, Q. (2005) Hypoxia-reoxygenation induces premature senescence in FA bone marrow hematopoietic cells. Blood, 106, 75–85. doi: 10.1182/blood-2004-08-3033 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1182/blood-2004-08-3033
Hassan, E. E. (2013). Effect of cigarette smoking on lipid profile in male at collage of police and Low Khartoum, Sudan. Asian journal of biomedical and pharmaceutical sciences, 3(26), 28. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/292139505
Herath, P., Wimalasekera, S. W., Amarasekara, T. D., Fernando, M. S., Turale, S. (2021). Adverse effects of cigarette smoking on exhaled breath carbon monoxide, blood carboxyhemoglobin, and hematological parameters amongst Sri Lankan adult tobacco smokers: A descriptive study. Population Medicine, 3(October), 27. doi.org/10.18332/popmed/143076 DOI: https://doi.org/10.18332/popmed/143076
Inal, B., Hacıbekiroglu, T., Cavus, B., Musaoglu, Z., Demir, H., & Karadag, B. (2014). Effects of smoking on healthy young men’s hematologic parameters. Northern clinics of Istanbul, 1(1), 19. doi: 10.14744/nci.2014.39974 DOI: https://doi.org/10.14744/nci.2014.39974
Jaafar, N. S. (2020). The effect of cigarette smoking on blood and biochemical parameters: A comparative study among male smokers and non-smokers in Baghdad City. Iraqi Journal of Science, 727-731. doi.org/10.24996/ijs.2020.61.4.3 DOI: https://doi.org/10.24996/ijs.2020.61.4.3
Kind, P. R. N., & King, E. J. (1954). Estimation of plasma phosphatase by determination of hydrolysed phenol with aminoantipyrine. Journal of clinical Pathology, 7(4), 322. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1136/jcp.7.4.322
Kumar, D., Sharma, P., Kumar, S., Sah, S. P., Arora, M., Iqbal, S., & Kumar, P. (2022). Renal Parameters in Mild, Moderate, and Chronic Cigarette Smokers. International Journal of Integrated Health Sciences, 10(1), 1-6. doi: 10.15850/ijihs.v10n1.2558 DOI: https://doi.org/10.15850/ijihs.v10n1.2558
Lakshmanan, A., & Saravanan, A. (2014). Effect of intensity of cigarette smoking on haematological and lipid parameters. Journal of clinical and diagnostic research: JCDR, 8(7), BC11. doi: 10.7860/JCDR/2014/9545.4612 DOI: https://doi.org/10.7860/JCDR/2014/9545.4612
Lindenfeld, J., & Schrier, R. W. (2011). Blood urea nitrogen: A marker for adverse effects of loop diuretics?. Journal of the American College of Cardiology, 58(4), 383-385. doi: 10.1016/j.jacc.2011.01.054 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jacc.2011.01.054
Malenica, M., Prnjavorac, B., Bego, T., Dujic, T., Semiz, S., Skrbo, S., ... & Causevic, A. (2017). Effect of cigarette smoking on haematological parameters in healthy population. Medical Archives, 71(2), 132. doi: 10.5455/medarh.2017.71.132-136 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5455/medarh.2017.71.132-136
Marsano, L. and McClain, C. J. (1989) Effects of alcohol on electrolytes and minerals. Alcohol Health Res. World, 13, 255–260. Retrieved from https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A8193360/AONE?u=googlescholar&sid=bookmark-AONE&xid=ee9c6225
Messner, B., & Bernhard, D. (2014). Smoking and cardiovascular disease: mechanisms of endothelial dysfunction and early atherogenesis. Arteriosclerosis, thrombosis, and vascular biology, 34(3), 509-515. doi: 10.1161/ATVBAHA.113.300156. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1161/ATVBAHA.113.300156
Munzir, M., & Ahmed, M. (2015). The effect of smoking cigarette on kidney functions among sundaes peoples. Internationan Journal of Development Research, 5(05), 4473-4475. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/277474815
Nguyen, M. K. and Kurtz, I. (2004) Determinants of plasma water sodium concentration as reflected in the Edelman equation: role of osmotic and GibbsDonnan equilibrium. Am. J. Physiol. Renal. Physiol., 286, F828–F837. doi: 10.1152/ajprenal.00393.2003 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1152/ajprenal.00393.2003
ohn, A. K. 2007. Disorders of acid- base balance. Crit. Care Med.Journal, 35: 2630-2636. doi: 10.1097/01.CCM.0000286399.21008.64 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1097/01.CCM.0000286399.21008.64
Orth, S. R., Viedt, C., & Ritz, E. (2001). Adverse effects of smoking in the renal patient. The Tohoku journal of experimental medicine, 194(1), 1-15. doi: 10.1620/tjem.194.1 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1620/tjem.194.1
Padmavathi, P., Reddy, V. D., & Varadacharyulu, N. (2009). Influence of chronic cigarette smoking on serum biochemical profile in male human volunteers. Journal of Health science, 55(2), 265-270. doi: 10.1248/jhs.55.265 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1248/jhs.55.265
Pessione, F., Ramond, M. J., Njapoum, C., Duchatelle, V., Degott, C., Erlinger, S., ... & Degos, F. (2001). Cigarette smoking and hepatic lesions in patients with chronic hepatitis C. Hepatology, 34(1), 121-125. doi.org/10.1053/jhep.2001.25385 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1053/jhep.2001.25385
Searcy, R. L., Foreman, J. A., Ketz, A., & Reardon, J. (1967). A new automated method for urea nitrogen analysis. American Journal of Clinical Pathology, 47(5_ts), 677-681. doi.org/10.1093/ajcp/47.5_ts.677 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcp/47.5_ts.677
Tayeb, B. A., Abdurrahman, S. M., & Tamar, R. Y. (2020). Correlation of increased triglyceride with alteration in haematological and biochemical parameters in apparently healthy individuals. Iraq Medical Journal, 4(1). doi.org/10.22317/imj0103201 DOI: https://doi.org/10.22317/imj0103201
Tietz, N. W. (1999). Text book of clinical chemistry, CA Burtis, ER Ashwood. WB Saunders, 652, 1431.
Walters, M., & Gerarde, H. (1970). Colourmeteic evalution of serum bilirubin. Microchem J, 15, 231-243. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/0026-265X(70)90045-7
